In sport and recreation tertiary education, cooperative education is an integral part of the student learning process and professional preparation (Cuneen & Sidwell, 1994; Parkhouse & Pitts, 2001). The cooperative education experience allows students to learn through a variety of experiences that result in changes in their actions and behaviours. The key aim of cooperative education at tertiary level is to apply and integrate theoretical concepts to the work environment (Rainsbury, Hodges, Burchell, & Lay, 2002). A recent survey has shown consistency in the aims and learning outcomes across university cooperative education programs in sport (Fleming & Ferkins, 2005). More specifically, cooperative education in sport provides opportunities for students to:

Analyse the role of the organization and its relationships within the industry.
Enable students to work in a professional manner and in a team environment.
Enable students to critically reflect on their own practice.
Develop generic skills such as communication, time management, planning, critical analysis, reflective thinking, initiative and creativity.
Develop problem solving, research, project design and management skills relevant to the industry (Fleming & Ferkins, 2005).

There is considerable literature that highlights the benefits of cooperative education to student learning in a range of disciplines. Research has highlighted academic benefits such as applying theory into practice (Van Gyn, Cutt, Loken & Ricks, 1997) and improving motivation to learn (Burchell, Hodges, & Rainsbury 2000; Weisz, 2000). Students also gain personal benefits such as enhanced self-confidence and increased initiative (Coll & Chapman, 2000; Weisz, 2000).

When students are placed into real world contexts they have opportunities to take on responsibilities, develop relationships with colleagues and supervisors and to work as a member of the team (Howard& England-Kennedy, 2001). Many cooperative education experiences include a project component. The involvement in a 'real life' project (as distinct from undertaking more random tasks) is recognised as a particularly valuable learning strategy that enhances student learning (Eakins, 2000). Undertaking a project facilitates personal development by providing an opportunity for the students to take responsibility that develops confidence, creativity and the use of initiative. The project also provides the opportunity for students to apply a range of technical skills and knowledge that have been learnt during their studies, yet also develop a wide range of new capabilities (Fleming & Eames, 2005).

Not only have the benefits of cooperative education to student learning been well documented, the benefits to industry and employers has been extensively researched in a range of disciplines, (see Braunstein & Loken, 2004 for a review of literature). In sport management, Martin and Leberman (2005) highlighted that most sport organizations valued the involvement, enthusiasm and input of new ideas by the students. Students, although only partially trained bring qualities such as objectivity, technical skills (such as coaching or planning techniques), and problem solving skills that are not necessarily found in other volunteers that they recruit for specific roles and sports events (Ferkins, 2002). Sport organizations have highlighted the significant benefit of students undertaking projects that may not otherwise be completed. This is seen as 'value added' work for a sport organization. It is clear that industry organizations seek students who can perform the necessary tasks, but who can also offer the capability to help improve current practice. The arguments presented in this paper are based on the notion that an action learning project enhances student learning as it provides further opportunities to develop capabilities for improving practice in the sport and recreation industry.

Sport students are offered placements through cooperative education that see them undertake a range of functions for their placement organizations. Some students complete basic day-to-day tasks, such as maintaining a membership database or fitness testing athletes while others fill in staffing gaps, for example, during major events. While these types of roles can fulfil desired outcomes of cooperative education programs (for the student, industry organization and institution), the adoption of action learning can add a further dimension because it aims to create change within the setting under investigation. Through the use of action learning students are in a unique position to identify a problem, integrate theory, determine action, and implement and evaluate that action.

Action Learning

Revans (1980, 1982, 1998) is credited as the first to develop action learning as an educational process whereby learning takes place by combining doing and reflection. "Action learning tackles problems through a process of first asking questions to clarify the exact nature of the problem, reflecting and identifying possible solutions, and moving … toward consideration of strategies and possible action" (Marquardt, 2004, p. 28). While Cardno (2003) and Coghlan and Brannick (2001) describe action learning as a sub-set of action research, there exists a distinction between the two in relation to the utilisation and extension of theory.

Action research challenges the researcher to integrate theoretical knowledge within the practical setting and through the experiential cycling of action and reflection, contribute to an understanding of current knowledge. Action learning, in contrast, focuses on localised learning and does not require the extension of new knowledge in a theoretical sense. "In its simplest terms, it is action research without the focus on research and generating usable knowledge or theory" (Coghlan & Brannick, 2001, p. 11). Action learning was therefore deemed an appropriate method within the action research family to apply within an undergraduate cooperative education program.

The collaborative nature of action learning is an important component of this type of inquiry that is consistent with the aims of cooperative education. As defined by McGill and Brockbank (2004), action learning is a " … collaborative process, which recognizes set members' social context, helps people to take an active stance towards life, overcome the tendency to be passive towards the pressures of life and work, and aims to benefit both the organization and the individual" (p. 11).

Cardno (2003) noted action learning as one of the brands of action research that includes a range of approaches and practices grounded in different traditions and philosophical and psychological assumptions. Methods of inquiry of this type have been described as participative, grounded in experience and action-orientated (Reason & Bradbury, 2001) and exist on a continuum. At one end of the continuum would be an approach that is highly collaborative, seeks to challenge dominant ideologies, longitudinal with multiple iterations of action and creates new knowledge or develops theory (Heron, 1996; Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000; Reason & Bradbury, 2001). Revans' (1998) notion of action learning might be placed lower on the continuum where collaboration to varying degrees is still an important part of the process yet challenging normative ideologies and creation of new knowledge or theory is not the dominant focus. For the purpose of this paper, Coghlan and Brannick's (2001) interpretation of action learning provided an appropriate description. Through a collaborative approach, " … participants select issues, examine them, make plans, take action and reflect on that action" (p. 11).

This paper presents two case studies that provide evidence that action learning in cooperative education projects helps create change and improve practice. The case studies were selected from the cooperative education program for the Bachelor of Sport and Recreation at AUT University, New Zealand.

Context

The Bachelor of Sport and Recreation (BSR) is a three-year program designed to prepare students for careers in the areas of sport and recreation management, exercise science, coaching, fitness, physical education or outdoor education. During their final year the BSR students complete 600 hours of cooperative education where work and learning are integrated through the development of partnerships between the university, the student and a sport or recreation organization. The cooperative education component constitutes half of the students' total workload for the academic year. The cooperative education courses (Cooperative 1 and Cooperative 2) are structured so that students spend the equivalent of two days a week during the two, fifteen-week, semesters of the academic year within one organization. This allows flexibility for students to experience a range of different learning activities that occur across a year, catering for the seasonal nature of the sport and recreation industry.

A key learning strategy within the BSR cooperative course is for the students to undertake a project for the host organization. The project is conceived within the industry context and must have a potential benefit for the organization. The approach used by the students depends on the aims and objectives of the project and may include descriptive techniques such as surveys and interviews, small-scale experiments or, as illustrated in this paper, the use of action learning strategies. The learning experience is facilitated and supported by an industry supervisor in the placement organization and an academic supervisor from the University.

Approach

The two case studies were selected from projects undertaken as part of the BSR in 2005. The projects selected exemplify the use of an action learning approach within sport cooperative education. In particular, the student projects illustrate learning strategies that develop capabilities for improving practice in the sport and recreation industry. The case studies were summarised and appropriate quotes selected from the project reports submitted by the students as part of the assessment requirements at the conclusion of their cooperative education experiences.

In both cases, the action learning approach consisted of four phases. Initially, the BSR student in collaboration with both industry and academic supervisors identified an issue or problem within the context of the organization where they were undertaking their cooperative experience (phase 1). During this stage the appropriate approach for the project was then determined. This phase was undertaken during the first 6 weeks of the placement and the duration in this phase was variable. The student then developed a proposal for an intervention or action, collaboratively. This involved reviewing and reflecting on current practice, examining theory learnt in class, reviewing literature as well as talking to and asking questions of industry personnel and gaining feedback from supervisors (phase 2). This stage was completed by the end of the first 15-week semester. The intervention or action was then undertaken during the second semester and the length of this phase depended on the nature of the action or intervention (phase 3). The final step in the process was the evaluation of the intervention and an extensive critical reflection on the overall experience (phase 4). A detailed report, summarising all phases of the project (including reflection on the learning experience) was then submitted for assessment at the end of the second 15-week semester.

It is not the purpose of this paper to extensively present the findings of each project, but to illustrate how action learning can be incorporated within the cooperative education experience to enhance student learning and improve practice in the sport industry.

Case Studies

Case One: An alternative approach to teaching sports skills

The cooperative education student, Sally (pseudonym) undertook her experience in a primary school in Auckland, New Zealand. Her role was to assist classroom teachers and the wider school with physical education and sport activities. Many sport and recreation graduates in New Zealand will be involved in developing programs to promote physical activity and sport, not only in schools but in the wider community. Therefore a placement in a school provides a broad range of learning experiences for the student that can also be transferred to alternative settings.

Phase 1:A review of current practice within the school was undertaken by Sally, through discussions with staff and observations in the classroom setting. The review identified low levels of involvement in sport by both children and staff. The Principal acknowledged that many staff were not confident in teaching sport skills and therefore provided limited experiences for the children. Sally and the staff acknowledged that this project potentially had a wider impact on the broader issue of youth physical activity. If the children have a more meaningful experience of physical education and sport as a fundamental part of their education, this may encourage more physical activity in the longer term.

Phase 2: Sally discussed with the school staff and Principal what their approach and commitment to sport was, and the issues they faced in teaching physical activity. Sally reviewed the literature and theory that she had learned in coaching, and physical activity and health classes. In particular, she focused on different approaches to teaching sport skills and from that review identified the philosophy that she proposed to utilise within the project.

The focus for the action or intervention was to introduce an alternative method and philosophy for teaching sports skills. The "Teaching Games for Understanding" approach (Bunker & Thorpe, 1982; Launder, 2001) was selected as it provided games focussed sessions as opposed to the traditional drill based sessions that most of the teachers were using within the school. Sally noted in her report "I shared with them (the three teachers involved with the project) the key findings of the literature review and the reasons I felt the teaching games for understanding approach would suit" (November, 2005). She also stated that it was important to 'sell' the model to the teachers to assist with the process of change. There was positive support for the alternative program by the teachers involved in the project.

Phase 3: Sally then identified the games and activities that would form the basis for the lesson plans that were collated to form a teaching resource. This involved a continuous process of designing and implementing sessions using the new approach, gaining feedback from teachers and children, and reflection and modification of the lesson plans. This process is consistent with the reflective nature of action learning, however as this occurred within a phase it can be termed a 'mini-cycle' (Cardno, 2003). The intervention occurred over a ten-week period. An additional outcome from this process was the development of a handbook that could be used in the future by all the teachers within the school.

Phase 4: Sally evaluated the impact the alternative approach had on the children and teachers who had been involved using a written survey, verbal feedback as well as her own observations and critical reflections. She concluded that, "there was a positive endorsement from the three teachers involved with the project for the 'Games for Understanding' approach" (November, 2005). The teachers reported increased confidence in the teaching of sport skills. Sally noted in her report a comment from the teachers that "the game sense approach better suited teachers who did not have soccer experience, than a technical skills approach". Sally reported that feedback from the children highlighted that they enjoyed the games and the teamwork that was developed. Sally also reported that the children "liked being able to achieve success and liked being involved … and they were able to make suggestions as to what they needed to do better" (November, 2005). Subjective pre and post assessment of sport skills (undertaken by Sally) highlighted improvements by all three classes in the tactical concepts of the sport

On reflection Sally wrote in her final report that an action learning approach had provided her with an appropriate method for the project as it "utilized a form of disciplined enquiry in which personal attempts were made to understand, improve and then reform practice" (November, 2005). She acknowledged that, "because action learning is participative, it can help create an environment for change (in this case with the teachers whose classes are involved in the project). Change is usually easier to achieve when those affected by change are involved" (November, 2005). She reported that she felt that the action learning approach encouraged her to more intensively reflect on what she was doing and that she particularly benefited from regular feedback from the children and teachers within this process. Sally also commented that this enabled her to develop her own understanding regarding teaching sport skills and felt there was greater learning from the collaborative approach that action learning allows.

Case Two: Improving the nutrition of athletes

The cooperative education student undertook her placement at a sports institute in New Zealand. The sports institute focuses on high performance sport development. Alison (pseudonym) worked alongside the sports nutritionist and was part of a team involved in the management of overseas athletes visiting the institute for training camps. The athletes were from a range of Pacific Island countries competing in a variety of different athletic disciplines. These athletes were all training and living at the institute and were provided all their meals by the restaurant.

Phase 1: Alison identified the issue she wanted to focus on through discussions with the athlete management team. In particular, the sports nutritionist highlighted concerns that the athletes were not meeting their nutritional requirements or following the suggested nutrition guidelines for their sport.

Phase 2: To determine current nutritional practices, food diaries and written questionnaires were completed by eight athletes. Alison analysed the food diaries and the responses from the questionnaire, which confirmed the initial views of the sports nutritionist. The reasons the athletes gave for not following the food guidelines included: they did not like some foods; they were not accustomed to some of the meals they were being offered; and they got bored with the same menu all the time. They were asked to give suggestions of which foods they would prefer to include in their diets.

Alison reviewed the literature and theory learned in the applied sports nutrition class as well as classes in physical activity and health. In addition she also contacted appropriate agencies related to Pacific Island nutrition and nutrition for athletes. Alison highlighted in her written reflections the value of the collaborative approach, using a range of contacts and resources to assist her determine the changes required.

Phase 3: The focus of the action or intervention was to assist the athletes at the institute to implement and maintain an eating plan that would meet the requirements of their sport while living at the institute. Alison made recommendations to the caterers of the restaurant for changes to be made to the food offered for the athletes. There was some compromise needed due to cost and availability of certain Pacific Island foods suggested by the athletes. The chef was also unfamiliar with how to cook certain foods so the student arranged for the athletes to show the chef how to prepare some of the traditional Pacific Island meals. The athletes spent four weeks adjusting to their new diet before a final questionnaire was administered.

Phase 4: The evaluation questionnaire was used as an instrument to gain feedback on how the athletes felt about the changes made, if their issues had been resolved and if their diets had improved. Overall the questionnaire responses revealed that most of the athletes had improved in terms of meeting their sport-specific nutritional requirements. Alison concluded that the project had been successful in creating positive change within the placement organization, "as most participants feel they are closer to meeting the nutritional requirements due to a wider variety of foods being offered to them" (November , 2005). However she acknowledged that this was just the first cycle in the process and that further monitoring of athletes and repeating the cycle would enhance the outcomes for the athletes and the organization.

Alison acknowledged in her final report that an action learning approach had been suitable for addressing this issue, "as it is a method in which the primary motive is to create a positive social change" (November, 2005). Action learning is inherently about attaining a better understanding of problems and through the study of a social situation improving the quality of action taken (Marquardt, 2004). Alison also identified that action learning focuses on methods or techniques "that consider the participants' history, culture, interactive activities and emotional lives" (November 2005). Consulting with the industry personnel and critically reflecting on the experience was highlighted by Alison as being a beneficial part of the action learning process. This enhanced her learning experience as well as provided a collaborative approach to determining the actions needed to improve practice.

Alison commented that while doing the project she learned "the importance of working through the steps in the process so that the project had structure and flow" (November, 2005). She also highlighted that she had developed a number of transferable skills such as oral and written communication as well as her ability to solve problems using her own initiative. She reported in her reflections that the project assisted her to develop confidence and awareness that she could apply knowledge and theory in a practical situation to bring about a change.

Discussion

Cooperative education can facilitate student learning in sport and recreation by putting into practice the theoretical concepts learned in the classroom. The integration of action learning within sport cooperative education projects is offered as a mechanism for enhancing the learning experience through developing capabilities for improving practice. Simply learning at work is not enough. Students need to learn what produces quality work and what it takes to improve quality. As noted earlier, Martin and Leberman, (2005) identified a desire by sport industry organizations involved in cooperative education, to engage students who might offer new and improved methods of practice. Action learning as a method of inquiry seeks to create positive change and provides a tool for cooperative education programs to further involve research and theory in the workplace setting.

In terms of the action learning outcomes, the two case studies discussed earlier demonstrate development at both an organizational and individual level. The case study findings echo Cardno's (2003) belief that "At the personal level the participant develops a deeper understanding of their own practice and of the beliefs and assumptions that frame their practice" (p. 2); and at the collegial and organizational level, "…participants develop shared understandings, and the group's ability to reflect on new learning is enriched by multiple perspectives…the commitment of staff to resolving problems … is managed and supported…" (p. 2).

At the organizational level, the evaluations undertaken by the students reported that change has been created within each organizational setting that has resulted in improved practice. The students reported that adoption of an alternative style of teaching sport skills within the school environment appears to have created a beneficial change in teaching practice and an increased cultural sensitivity regarding menu selection appears to have been instigated within the sports institute (see case studies). Perhaps the most significant aspect of organizational development might be the adoption of a reflective approach that provides direct outcomes for the organization. Through the use of the action learning, the student facilitated organizational reflection by involving the teachers in the ongoing evaluation of specific lesson plans for the sports skills sessions as well as critically reflecting on the overall outcomes of the project. Action learning utilized via the medium of cooperative education provides a problem solving approach that draws on theory yet appears palatable for practitioners. Direct benefits accrued for the organizations and students, learning was captured through the reflective process by the students, and therefore it is less likely the faulty practice will be repeated.

At the individual or student level, the requirement to identify a problem, integrate theory, determine action, implement the action and evaluate the outcome, challenged the students to draw on a range of resources available to them. The student reflections highlighted that significant learning had been achieved. This learning not only involved the integration of current workplace knowledge and practice, but alternative options identified through reviewing relevant literature and available theory. The students also reported that the collaborative experience in facilitating a shared solution between organization, client and student, was an important capability to develop. Sally stated, " … there is greater learning if there is a team approach, as much of the action research literature shows" (November, 2005).

However, just having an experience does not necessarily mean learning will have occurred. Reflection is a crucial factor in facilitating the experiential learning process; it transforms experience and theory into knowledge and enhances the transfer of learning (Van Gyn, 1996). The reflective nature of cooperative education seeks to maximize student learning, however, the addition of an action learning approach within this process provides the student with a problem-solving tool that specifically seeks to integrate theory and practice. The action learning process integrated within the cooperative education experience encourages the student to actively engage in the learning process.

As illustrated by the case studies used in this paper, learning is enhanced by the students' recognition that they have a stake in the process, that they have something to contribute to the process and they have some responsibility for the outcomes. The quality of the learning in cooperative education is not dependent on the experience itself but on the reflection on the experience (Van Gyn, 1996). Integrating an action learning approach encourages and facilitates reflection and allows the student to develop more effective skills so that the learning from the experience can be enhanced.

The students have been challenged to not just accept current practice but to seek methods of improvement, to implement such methods and to evaluate the outcome. Such a tool, it is argued, positions the students as change agents within industry organizations and offers the opportunity to create lasting change and the capability for improving practice. Change was identified in both case study illustrations. In case study one, the teachers considered they had improved their method of teaching of sport skills and the student reported greater appreciation for a collaborative approach to improving practice. In case study two, the student reported increased confidence and awareness regarding the application of knowledge and theory to bring about practical change and that a positive change in the athletes' nutrition had occurred.

The use of the action learning approach within the cooperative education project is one of a range of methods available to students. In the sport and recreation cooperatives others include more traditional quantitative approaches such as surveys and questionnaires. Of the eighty students undertaking projects each year approximately twenty-five percent employ an action learning approach. While the two case studies discussed were chosen because they clearly illustrated an action learning approach, they are also illustrative of the type of outcomes many of the students experience. However not all student projects are successful in terms of creating significant outcomes for the organization. The level of academic supervision is critical to the success of this approach, as is the willingness of the placement organizations to engage with the students. The student also needs to be able to effectively negotiate with the industry organization and lead the project process. Certainly the professional capabilities required are not exhibited by all students at this level.

Summary

The case studies presented have demonstrated how the integration of action learning within student cooperative education projects is possible. The case studies exemplify how action learning can enhance student learning as it provides opportunities to develop capabilities for improving practice in the sport and recreation industry. Students are offered a tool that allows them to act as change agents within the workplace setting that can provide lasting benefits for their learning as well as creating change for the organization.

In this context undergraduate sport students are utilising an action learning approach at one end of the action research continuum. However, at postgraduate level sport students could be encouraged to undertake projects utilising higher levels of complexity to make more significant contributions to practice in the sport industry. In either situation, there is no doubt that increased academic supervision and consideration of the challenges and complexity of such endeavours is needed.

Further investigation regarding the efficacy of action learning within cooperative education projects is needed and could include a closer investigation of the change that has taken place for both student learning and the industry organization partners. The challenges and limitations of using an action learning approach for student projects also warrants further investigation, particular in terms of how academic supervision might be structured to support such endeavours.