Ellen Weaver-Paquette
Rhode Island College, Providence, Rhode Island
Classical structural career development theorists (Crites 1961, 1981; Tiedeman, 1987; Osipow, 1983; Krumboltz, 1979 and Jordaan, 1963) address stages of development to be resolved through exploration, discovery and crystallization of career options particularly in adolescence. Classical developmental career theorists (Super, 1957, 1990; Roe, 1956; Holland, 1966) see a lifelong process that continues self-actualization during maturity. Super (1990) describes our society as expecting 18-25 year olds to master the tasks related to career exploration. Super sees this focus as directly related to self-concept.
Jepsen (1989) has addressed the multiple processes of adolescent decision- making with antecedent conditions. He suggests that the successful resolution of important career decision points is critically linked to important contextual reference groups (peers, co-workers, etc.) for the adolescent. Neoclassical career development theory (Gottfriedson, 1977; Bandura, 1977) speaks to a double helix effect of self-efficacy and work context, pitted against the rapid cultural and technological changes. Futurists, (Wegard, 1989) speak to the fluid nature of the world economy that has a profound effect upon the U.S. workforce.
Higher education professionals struggle with complex issues of student development while constrained by severe budget restrictions and mounting consumer pressures. Educating students regarding the changing nature of work has become a priority (Gustafson, 1995). The need to point to workable solutions escalates, as evidenced by recent federal initiatives seeking to address the discontinuity between school and work. However, longstanding within the curriculum, particularly in the practical arts, there has been a work component labeled variously as apprenticeship, practica, internships, field experiences and cooperative education. All aim, in their own ways, at the acquisition of work skills as a hands-on experience and each nods appreciatively toward a contribution to the overall career development needs of the individual.
Many work experience professionals firmly believe, based upon personal experiences and anecdotal observation, that supervised work experiences do indeed benefit the successful formulation of the career identities of college students. Many cooperative education institutions have incorporated career development outcomes into their programs. (Heineman and Wilson, 1995). However, upon inquiry into recent research contributions, indications as to the real contributions of cooperative education experiences to the career development of college students are mixed, likely based upon multiple and confounding career development factors and upon the career maturity levels of program participants. Real questions as to the positioning and the effectiveness of career interventions in the form of cooperative education exist. Such as, is it possible to declare that cooperative education, as a sole learning mechanism, is responsible for enhanced career development outcomes? Can we establish that a single (or multiple, repeating) cooperative education work term(s) strategically offered within the curriculum, expands or solidifies career choice? How is career readiness established or fostered in the work context? How do we as educators deal with nonlinear career choices in a post-industrial era? This genre of inquiry points to the need for additional solid study that examines neither a halo effect, nor a single construct of self-efficacy, but the specific constructs of the career development process, as reported by both the career determined and undetermined.
Wilson (1961) suggested that cooperative education has had a "substantial impact" upon career planning and development. This observation, echoed by Ducat (1980) seems to continue into the realm of work values and attitudes and is also described (Martello and Shelton, 1980; Wilson and Lyons, 1961) as having positive influences. Weston (1986) addresses the notion of career identity and the cooperative education participant, calling upon Erikson's work (1963, 1968) in ego identity through crisis resolution and upon Marcia's (1966) identity achievement theory. This study addresses the important components of career identity, namely, certainty of career and commitment to career. These constructs of career identity appear to be related to the career identity of cooperative education students. Weston observes that cooperative education students in career related curricula might have begun the process of assimilating career characteristics before a work assignment, particularly in career related disciplines and recommends further study utilizing Marcia's identity theory as well as additional investigations involving liberal arts students.
Fletcher (1991) investigates the impact of cooperative education experiences upon the construct of career maturity. The important factor of career related employment inherent in cooperative education programs is seen to enhance the opportunity for students to directly evaluate themselves in the workplace. However, other studies seem to imply contradictory results. Ricks (1993) addresses these contradictions in her "Reflections on the Cooperative Education Literature" article citing Rowe (1980) and the Heller and Heinemann (1987) study which indicated that" cooperative work experience is no more effective in producing student satisfaction with career goals than no job."
Williams (1991) examined the research findings upon the impact of field education on student development. After his examination of twelve studies conducted with junior high, high school and college students, Williams suggested that career development attitudes and orientation to work are formulated at an early stage (grades nine or ten). He continues with Newton's (1975) study that observed career interests were based upon limited observations and inaccurate information. Williams suggested that long-term experiences and realistic self-assessments would have a positive effect upon students' acquisition of informed career choices.
Brooks (1995) addressed the six career development variables (decidedness, self- concept, crystallization, amount of occupational information, career self-efficacy, vocational commitment and tendency to foreclose as described by Jordaan (1963). In her study of the relationship of career related work or internship experiences to the career development of college seniors, Brooks found a correlation between self-concept crystallization and career related experiences, but not to the other five indices. Brooks emphasizes Blustein's (1990) suggestions regarding the impact of career development related work experiences upon both the vocationally decided and the undecided student.
So far studies have addressed the career development issues for a traditional aged population preparing for their first professional positions. However, non traditional aged college students with varied and considerable work experiences now comprise a significant portion of classroom seats, particularly in community colleges and in urban institutions in easy commuting range of home and work. Career studies of this adult population seeking retraining and career entry may be enhanced by the recent work of Peahy (1994), Savickas and Lent (1994) and by Lent, Brown and Hackett (1994) describing the concepts of role saliency, convergency, theory unification and constructivism.
The demands of the work world for "knowledge" based work (Herr, 1989, 1993, 1994) and the sheer force of international competition have become a part of the maxims of contemporary career development. And wither the concept of careers in the 21st century? The geometric explosion of technological, social and economic changes upon the work world has altered any remaining post industrial idea of linear and stable occupational preparation. As Wegmann, Chapman and Johnson (1989) eloquently describe; corporate turbulence, downsizing, temporary positions and the burgeoning service industry-based economy serve as indicators of widespread economic changes. Our notions of career development are no longer solidly linked to a staid, predictable and controllable progression of job changes. Perhaps preparing for change may be the lens by which programmatic changes may be processed.
It may be suggested that career development maturity assessments conducted before career identity (i.e., selection of a college program of study) may be an appropriate venue to investigate a new cohort. This cohort may offer challenges to assess career readiness prior to exposure to upper division curricular-based expectations. Additionally it may be observed that knowledge of self and of the plethora of career choices are significant constructs established by the national Career Development Guidelines and actually utilized in K-12 career development programs in many states. Hence, it might be useful to learn the extent of career decisiveness in incoming college freshmen early before entry into supervised work experience programs. A cross section of the career committed (i.e., professional programs) as well as undeclared majors at diverse institutions might lend insight. A delicate dichotomy of career decisiveness and a willingness to suspend decision making may factor into the process as well. Investigations into the quadrant of continued consistent career affiliations during the work experience while the reality of the workplace settles in may lend some fascinating insight into the career maturity process.
It is timely for examinations to continue regarding the relationships between researchers/theorists, practitioners/researchers and clients, the "virtuous circle" (Collins, 1996). Research in career counseling lends itself to continued dialogue between practitioner and theorist, looking at a convergence of ideas and observations about the process while attempting to address the gap between theory and practice. Suggestions such as made by Linda Mezydlo-Subich address the "uniformity myth" that plays out in many common career development assumptions that may have proportionately less relevance in a work world representing diversity, individuality and unique work context. These challenges await the reflective practitioner in the cooperative education and experiential learning communities as threads of research in career development expand our knowledge base.