Manuscripts submitted for publication in professional journals go through numerous stages of production before appearing in print. Rejection rates often range from 50-80 percent, with accepted articles still requiring revision.
During my first four years as Editor of The Journal of Cooperative Education, only 145 unsolicited, non-thematic articles were submitted for consideration for publication. One might have anticipated more, given the number of successful cooperative education programs throughout the United States, Canada and abroad. Of the 145 manuscripts received, only 31 (22 %) were accepted by the Editorial Board subject to minor revision by the staff. An additional 41 (28 %) were accepted subject to major revision by the author. Thus, 50 percent were rejected.
Informal surveys conducted by the Editor reveal that many cooperative educators are quite enthusiastic about the value of their programs and various innovations, but most question their ability to produce a meaningful paper for a professional audience. Since the majority of these individuals hold a masters or doctorate, one must assume that their reluctance to submit articles is not so much a question of ability, but evidence of the need for technical assistance and encouragement. This paper is designed to address that need.
More specifically, the goals of this paper are to assist cooperative education professionals, faculty and employers to strengthen their skills as authors and to improve their chances of being published. Manuscript focus, style, grammar, organization and related concerns are discussed. Although most of the information is applicable to other professional journals, special attention is directed toward guidelines for authors and the manuscript needs of The Journal of Cooperative Education.
In writing for professional journals, articles should be conceptualized in terms of the audience you wish to reach. It is important, therefore, to research the audience and the needs of the journal. What themes tend to appear? Are you writing for researchers or practitioners? The timing and freshness of your ideas and data are also important. The content should include the who, what, when, why and how of the typical news story. The order and style of presentation will, of course, depend upon the audience and periodical.
An effective introduction of the subject is critical to the success and acceptance of an article. Well-written introductions seldom exceed three or four paragraphs. This paper, for example, was introduced with four short paragraphs noting that a) relatively few cooperative education professionals are submitting articles, b) of those manuscripts received, many require revision, c) the problems appear to reflect a need for encouragement and technical assistance, and cl) the paper is a response to that need. Two additional examples from recent issues of The Journal of Cooperative Education illustrate the clarity and conciseness of an effective introduction:
While over 250 articles have been written within the last ten years on cooperative education programs, few studies have been conducted regarding employers' perceptions of these programs. Those which have been reported were conducted on college programs ...
A recent study by Winer and Snell (1979) was directed toward investigating employers' perceptions of cooperative education programs on the secondary level. A comparison of the Winer-Snell findings to those of a study conducted for a similar purpose on the post-secondary level seems appropriate [ and is the focus of this article]. (Snell, 1981)
Too often we neglect our public relations (P.R.) efforts until one or more major problems arise. Public Relations exists to inform and build a favorable image among the publics we serve. It involves solid communications skills. Public relations should not be merely a remedial plan to put out brush fires such as this term's low co-op enrollment, a student fired from the job, an unexpected loss of employers, or a sudden lack of administrative or faculty support due to financial or organizational changes. A continuous P.R. effort is needed "to aid a cooperative education program to function smoothly. The effort should be directed toward the various publics or groups whose common denominator affects your program. Some of them are: administrators, faculty, students, employers and staff. [This paper includes] ... some P. R. ideas that work well, especially for those institutions operating with a voluntary program. (Wadsworth, 1981)
You may have observed that the introductions above contain the "why" or justification of the article (i.e., an explanation of the importance of a problem and the role of the paper in response to that need). The why of an article should be clear to you before you start to write, and it should be presented early in the manuscript as a statement of the problem or need. Whether a single sentence or a paragraph, it must convince the editor and readers that you have something valuable to say.
The "how" of an article refers to the style or approach which an author may use to attract and hold the reader. Again, the audience for whom you are preparing the manuscript should be known and taken into account. Researchers, for example, will be turned off by an article with a disjointed writing style, inadequate review of the literature, improper documentation, poorly defined procedures and insufficient discussion of the findings and their implications. Practitioners, on the other hand, may not be experts in the subject of a given article and will want to spend only a brief time digesting it. They want a quick, interesting, practical overview of the issues, programs or practices being discussed. Despite divergent interests and needs of readers, a clear and simple approach is appreciated by all. The following example demonstrates that technical style need not be complicated:
In 1981, Utah State University was awarded a Title VIII grant which was designed to identify and analyze the benefits to faculty resulting from their involvement in cooperative education. The three major purposes of this study were to
Other examples of style may be found as you review articles found in the professional journals to which you may contribute. Note that some may introduce their concern by way of a rhetorical question (e.g., "If our people desire to be productive, why is unemployment, particularly youth unemployment, so high?''). Another may use subtle language to attract the reader: "For those of us who are committed to the philosophy and practice of cooperative education, an examination of xyz is crucial." Naturally, if I consider myself to be so committed, then I will follow the author's lead and examination of those "crucial" variables.
Identified below are several additional recommendations regarding style and effective written communication:
In addition to reaching the reader through style and content considerations described above, authors should familiarize themselves with various components of a manuscript. Each part serves a purpose and deserves careful attention.
The title should summarize the main idea simply and concisely. It may refer to the major variables or issues treated with the article, but abbreviations and redundancies should be avoided (e.g., "A study of ... "; "A scientific investigation of ... ").In short, standing alone, the title should communicate to the reader what the article is about: "Cooperative Education Advisory Councils: Characteristics and Contributions" (Hartley, 1981); "Public Relations Ideas for Cooperative Education" (Wadsworth, 1981).
The author's name, institutional affiliation, address and telephone number should be provided, usually on the title or cover page. Most professional journals conduct "blind" reviews. That is, the manuscript is sent to reviewers without the author's identification attached in an effort to avoid bias. Some publications do not use the author's title or degree, but it is appropriate to include that information unless otherwise informed.
An abstract is a brief summary of the content, purpose and findings of the article. The typical abstract in a research journal will include a statement of the problem, method, results and conclusions in 75 to 100 words. An abstract is not required for The Journal of Cooperative Education, but a well-written abstract might establish a positive mood within the reviewer.
The importance of the introduction has been alluded to earlier in this article. The introduction, like the "resume," is not titled. The effective introduction often includes references to selected studies pertinent to the issue and shows some logical continuity between the previous and present works. After one has stated the problem and developed the background, the next step is to tell what is done or proposed in the present study. This statement usually appears in the closing paragraphs of the introduction.
In this section, the author describes how the study was conducted. Sufficient detail should be provided so that interested researchers may replicate the study. If the readers are primarily practitioners, one should be especially careful to make this section as clear and concise as feasible. Issue papers and other non-research reports will not contain this section. Where it does appear, the method section frequently includes a brief identification of subjects, instruments and procedures.
The results section includes a summary of the data and findings. Report the data in sufficient detail to justify your findings. Choose the medium-tables, figures, charts and written word-that most effectively communicate.
After presenting your findings, you are in a position to evaluate and interpret them, especially in respect to your original hypotheses. This is often the section of greatest interest to readers. Here you may feel free to examine, interpret, qualify and draw inferences. Open the discussion with a clear statement of the support or nonsupport of your hypotheses. In general, try to answer for the reader such questions as the following: What have I contributed here? How have I helped resolve the original problem cited in the introduction? What conclusions or theoretical implications can I draw from the study? Many papers will end with a general summary, such as that provided below.
If references to prior studies have appeared in your paper, these must be fully documented in this section. Several style manuals are available, but one should refer to a recent issue of the journal to which you plan to submit your article. Moreover, authors should study and follow guidelines for authors, which are included in most professional journals.
This paper was developed in response to the perception that many potential authors fail to prepare articles for professional journals not because they lack ability, but because they are in need of encouragement and technical assistance. Toward that end, I have discussed the importance of knowing your audience and reaching the reader through the effective planning, writing and organization of the manuscript. Specific recommendations regarding style (e.g., use of precise terms, avoidance of ambiguity, economy and order in presentation of ideas) were introduced, as were the parts of a manuscript. In closing, I direct your attention to three final considerations: 1) Do not be afraid to seek constructive advice from other before submitting a manuscript; 2) Know your readers, become familiar with the target periodical, and follow the guidelines for authors identified here and in the journal to which you are submitting the article; and, 3) Remember that effective writing is both an art and a science. Do not be discouraged if your initial efforts are not successful. Accept feedback graciously and make recommended revisions promptly. I am constantly struggling to improve my own writing skills. If you have read this far, perhaps I am making progress-and so can you!